why were japanese americans interned during world war ii

Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment. '[71], The Niihau Incident occurred in December 1941, just after the Imperial Japanese Navy's attack on Pearl Harbor. The Imperial Japanese Navy had designated the Hawaiian island of Niihau as an uninhabited island for damaged aircraft to land and await rescue. The Issei were exclusively those who had immigrated before 1924; some desired to return to their homeland. Neither the Army, not the War Relocation Authority relish the idea of taking men, women and children from their homes, their shops and their farms. We were in a period of emergency, but it was still the wrong thing to do. They lobbied successfully to restrict the property and citizenship rights of Japanese immigrants, as similar groups had previously organized against Chinese immigrants. Across the camps, people who answered No to both questions became known as "No Nos". Japanese Americans were imprisoned, not interned. While Americans have an inate [sic] distaste for stringent measures, every one must realize this is a total war, that there are no Americans running loose in Japan or Germany or Italy and there is absolutely no sense in this country running even the slightest risk of a major disaster from enemy groups within the nation.[91]. ominous, in that I feel that in view of the fact that we have had no sporadic attempts at sabotage that there is a control being exercised and when we have it it will be on a mass basis.[44]. ), cited in, Andrew E. Taslitz, "Stories of Fourth Amendment Disrespect: From Elian to the Internment," 70. Nina Akamu, a Sansei, created the sculpture entitled Golden Cranes of two red-crowned cranes, which became the center feature of the Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism During World War II. DeWitt's proclamation informed Japanese Americans they would be required to leave Military Area 1, but stated that they could remain in the second restricted zone. The Commission's report, titled Personal Justice Denied, found little evidence of Japanese disloyalty at the time and concluded that the incarceration had been the product of racism. Japanese Peruvians were still being "rounded up" for shipment to the U.S. in previously unseen numbers. These "exclusion zones," unlike the "alien enemy" roundups, were applicable to anyone that an authorized military commander might choose, whether citizen or non-citizen. were they Buddhist or Christian? [43], Several concerns over the loyalty of ethnic Japanese seemed to stem from racial prejudice rather than any evidence of malfeasance. [215] A 2016 study finds, using the random dispersal of internees into camps in seven different states, that the people assigned to richer locations did better in terms of income, education, socioeconomic status, house prices, and housing quality roughly fifty years later. Correspondence, Secretary of State to President Roosevelt, 740.00115 European War 1939/4476, PS/THH, August 27, 1942. Although many people thought the Japanese American internment was needed to ensure U.S. Italian Americans by far had the lowest rate of internment. concentration camps. [241] However, during a subsequent meeting held at the offices of the AJC in New York City, leaders representing Japanese Americans and Jewish Americans reached an understanding about the use of the term. 1906 - The San Francisco Board of Education passes a resolution to segregate children of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean ancestry. [153], [M]y renunciation had been an expression of momentary emotional defiance in reaction to years of persecution suffered by myself and other Japanese Americans and, in particular, to the degrading interrogation by the FBI agent at Topaz and being terrorized by the guards and gangs at Tule Lake. This exchange would involve 1,500 non-volunteer Japanese who were to be exchanged for 1,500 Americans. (This entry is Part 10 of a weekly 20-part retrospective of World War II ... the Relocation Center and the Japanese Americans interned there. [27][28] The day before the Korematsu and Endo rulings were made public, the exclusion orders were rescinded. Unfounded fears that Japanese American citizens might sabotage the war effort led Franklin Delano Roosevelt to order that all Americans of Japanese descent be forced into internment camps. But according to the government’s own intelligence service, this concern over espionage was misplaced. In 1942, over 100,000 individuals of Japanese origin or descent were forced from their homes and incarcerated. b. in retaliation for Americans put in concentration camps by the Japanese. This history and reference guide will help students and other interested readers to understand the history of this action and its reinterpretation in recent years, but it will also help readers to understand the Japanese American wartime experience through the … The rest were Issei ("first generation") immigrants born in Japan who were ineligible for U.S. citizenship under U.S. Like many white American farmers, the white businessmen of Hawaii had their own motives for determining how to deal with the Japanese Americans, but they opposed internment. [122][clarification needed] Food poisoning was common and also demanded significant attention. A Los Angeles Times editorial dated February 19, 1942, stated that: Since Dec. 7 there has existed an obvious menace to the safety of this region in the presence of potential saboteurs and fifth columnists close to oil refineries and storage tanks, airplane factories, Army posts, Navy facilities, ports and communications systems. It is sixty years since the biggest case of racial profiling in U.S. history. An affirmative answer to Question 28 brought up other issues. Allowing them to continue their education, however, did not erase the potential for traumatic experiences during their overall time in the camps. 236-A, 236-B, Gila River Indian Community v. The United States of America", "FDR-51: Letter, Harold L. Ickes to FDR, and Letter, FDR to Harold L. 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On February 16 the President tasked Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson with replying. The government also operated camps for a number of German Americans and Italian Americans, who sometimes were assigned to share facilities with the Japanese Americans. The internment of thousands of Japanese Americans during World War II is one of the most shameful episodes in American history. Some believed that renouncing their loyalty to Japan would suggest that they had at some point been loyal to Japan and disloyal to the United States. "[232], In subsequent decades, debate has arisen over the terminology used to refer to camps in which Americans of Japanese ancestry and their immigrant parents, were incarcerated by the US government during the war. Finally, the monument presents the Japanese American experience as a symbol for all peoples.[261]. One of the most controversial actions taken by the United States government during World War II was the early 1942 relocation of about 110,000 people of Japanese ancestry living on the West Coast and their internment for much of the duration of the war in well-guarded, isolated camps farther into the U. S. interior. [56] A night-time curfew, also initiated on March 27, 1942, placed further restrictions on the movements and daily lives of Japanese Americans. The internment of Japanese Americans in the United States during World War II was the forced relocation and incarceration in concentration camps in the western interior of the country of about 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry, most of whom lived on the Pacific Coast. [302] In the coram nobis cases, federal district and appellate courts ruled that newly uncovered evidence revealed an unfairness which, had it been known at the time, would likely have changed the Supreme Court's decisions in the Yasui, Hirabayashi, and Korematsu cases. of Justice Camps", "Concentration Camp U.S.A. – a personal account of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II", Radio Netherlands Archives, September, 1991, "Japanese Relocation Archived from the original (FILM- original film viewable for free) on 16 July 2002. In 1998, use of the term "concentration camps" gained greater credibility prior to the opening of an exhibit about the American camps at Ellis Island. Myer served as Director of the WRA until the centers were closed. Nearly a quarter of the internees left the camps to live and work elsewhere in the United States, outside the exclusion zone. The extreme climates of the remote incarceration sites were hard on infants and elderly prisoners. The “yellow peril” prejudice was clearly a powerful force pushing politicians to call for Japanese American internment. The National Japanese American Student Relocation Council was formed on May 29, 1942, and the AFSC administered the program. In early 1943, War Relocation Authority officials, working with the War Department and the Office of Naval Intelligence,[143] circulated a questionnaire in an attempt to determine the loyalty of incarcerated Nisei men they hoped to recruit into military service. [58], Eviction from the West Coast began on March 24, 1942, with Civilian Exclusion Order No. When most of the Assembly Centers closed they became training camps for US troops. Takaki, Ronald T. "A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America". In effect, the two rulings held that, while the eviction of American citizens in the name of military necessity was legal, the subsequent incarceration was not—thus paving the way for their release. World War II: How Imperial Japan Could Have Still Won Against America. Members of Congress, mayors, and many business and labor leaders demanded people of Japanese ancestry be removed from the West Coast.They did not believe that Japanese Americans would remain loyal to the United states in the war with Japan. Picture by Ansel Adams c. 1943. [184][185] One camp was located at Sand Island at the mouth of Honolulu Harbor. [15], Roosevelt authorized Executive Order 9066, issued on February 19, 1942, which allowed regional military commanders to designate "military areas" from which "any or all persons may be excluded. [121], Before the war, 87 physicians and surgeons, 137 nurses, 105 dentists, 132 pharmacists, 35 optometrists, and 92 lab technicians provided healthcare to the Japanese American population, with most practicing in urban centers like Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle. Many books and novels were written by and about Japanese Americans' experience during and after their residence in concentration camps among them can be mentioned the followed: Several significant legal decisions arose out of Japanese-American internment, relating to the powers of the government to detain citizens in wartime. [22] Most arrived before 1908, when the Gentlemen's Agreement between Japan and the United States banned the immigration of unskilled laborers. Personally, I hate the Japanese. Registration in San Francisco, California. The Roberts Commission Report, prepared at President Franklin D. Roosevelt's request, has been cited as an example of the fear and prejudice informing the thinking behind the internment program. DeWitt's final report stated that, because of their race, it was impossible to determine the loyalty of Japanese Americans, thus necessitating internment. [9] About 80,000 were Nisei (literal translation: "second generation"; American-born Japanese with U.S. citizenship) and Sansei ("third generation"; the children of Nisei). "[116] The quality of life in the camps was heavily influenced by which government entity was responsible for them. During World War II, The War Relocation Authority detained more than 14,000 Japanese Americans at the Heart Mountain Relocation Center in Wyoming. Having been alerted to the Court's decision, the Roosevelt administration issued Public Proclamation No. On December 18, 1944, the Supreme Court handed down two decisions on the legality of the incarceration under Executive Order 9066. [110], Detainees convicted of crimes, usually draft resistance, were sent to these sites, mostly federal prisons:[110], These camps often held German and Italian detainees in addition to Japanese Americans:[110], These immigration detention stations held the roughly 5,500 men arrested immediately after Pearl Harbor, in addition to several thousand German and Italian detainees, and served as processing centers from which the men were transferred to DOJ or Army camps:[112], Somewhere between 110,000 and 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry were subject to this mass exclusion program, of whom about 80,000 Nisei (second generation) and Sansei (third generation) were U.S. According to the National Japanese American Memorial Foundation, the memorial: ...is symbolic not only of the Japanese American experience, but of the extrication of anyone from deeply painful and restrictive circumstances. The premise is incorrect. [47][48], DeWitt also sought approval to conduct search and seizure operations aimed at preventing alien Japanese from making radio transmissions to Japanese ships. [33] From 1869 to 1924 approximately 200,000 immigrated to the islands of Hawaii, mostly laborers expecting to work on the islands' sugar plantations. United States Attorney General Janet Reno also spoke at the dedication of the Memorial, where she shared a letter from President Clinton stating: "We are diminished when any American is targeted unfairly because of his or her heritage. A Los Angeles Times editorial dated April 22, 1943, stated that: As a race, the Japanese have made for themselves a record for conscienceless treachery unsurpassed in history. George W. Chilcoat (Adapter, Author), Michael O. Tunnell (Author). February 19, 1942, FDR signed Executive Order 9066, usually referred to as the"Japanese Internment Order." On September 27, 1992, the Civil Liberties Act Amendments of 1992, appropriating an additional $400 million to ensure all remaining internees received their $20,000 redress payments, was signed into law by President George H. W. Bush. Over 81,800 people qualified by 1998 and $1.6 billion was distributed among them. Newspapers printed rumors about Japanese spies in the Japanese American community. [143] The final two questions on the form, which soon came to be known as the "loyalty questionnaire", were more direct: Question 27: Are you willing to serve in the armed forces of the United States on combat duty, wherever ordered? An estimated 33,000 Japanese Americans served in the military during and immediately after World War II, about 18,000 in the 442nd and 6,000 as part of the MIS. [29], In 1980, under mounting pressure from the Japanese American Citizens League and redress organizations,[30] President Jimmy Carter opened an investigation to determine whether the decision to put Japanese Americans into concentration camps had been justified by the government. Barracks Assigned at Minidoka in Eden, Idaho. Final Report: Japanese Evacuation from the West Coast, 1942, Headquarters Western Defense Command and Fourth Army, Office of the Commanding General, Presidio of San Francisco, California; Chapters 1 and 2. Later investigations into the camps, however, tell us that a lot of Japanese American families who were "relocated" owned coveted farmland across the west coast. Kashima, Tetsuden. Afterward, the government passed the Renunciation Act of 1944, a law that made it possible for Nisei and Kibei to renounce their American citizenship. In 1943, Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes wrote "the situation in at least some of the Japanese internment camps is bad and is becoming worse rapidly. [80] She criticized academia's treatment of the subject, and suggested that academics critical of Japanese internment had ulterior motives. And that goes for all of them.[63]. Some 180,000 went to the U.S. mainland, with the majority settling on the West Coast and establishing farms or small businesses. On February 24, 1983, the commission issued a report entitled Personal Justice Denied, condemning the internment as unjust and motivated by racism and xenophobic ideas rather than factual military necessity. Coming to different conclusions about how to deal with the Japanese-American community, both the white farmers of the continental United States and the white businessmen of Hawaii placed priority on protecting their own economic interests. [178] Also, Japanese Americans comprised over 35% of the territory's population, with 157,905 of Hawaii's 423,330 inhabitants at the time of the 1940 census,[179] making them the largest ethnic group at that time; detaining so many people would have been enormously challenging in terms of logistics. "[31] The U.S. government eventually disbursed more than $1.6 billion (equivalent to $3,460,000,000 in 2019) in reparations to 82,219 Japanese Americans who had been interned. [102][105] A total of 92,193[105] Japanese Americans were transferred to these temporary detention centers from March to August 1942. "[45] However, despite the fact that the report made no mention of Americans of Japanese ancestry, national and West Coast media nevertheless used the report to vilify Japanese Americans and inflame public opinion against them.[46]. [170], After the Pearl Harbor attack, Roosevelt authorized his attorney general to put into motion a plan for the arrest of thousands of individuals on the potential enemy alien lists, most of them were Japanese-American community leaders. Credo Reference. Print, p. 379. "[15], Upon the bombing of Pearl Harbor and pursuant to the Alien Enemies Act, Presidential Proclamations 2525, 2526 and 2527 were issued designating Japanese, German and Italian nationals as enemy aliens. [212], Japanese Americans also encountered hostility and even violence when they returned to the West Coast. [128] "There was persistent mud or dust, heat, mosquitoes, poor food and living conditions, inadequate instructional supplies, and a half mile or more walk each day just to and from the school block". 1, which gave the 227 Japanese American residents of Bainbridge Island, Washington six days to prepare for their "evacuation" directly to Manzanar. Further slowing the program were legal and political "turf" battles between the State Department, the Roosevelt administration, and the DOJ, whose officials were not convinced of the legality of the program. [49] The Justice Department declined, stating that there was no probable cause to support DeWitt's assertion, as the FBI concluded that there was no security threat. In May 2011, U.S. [136] In January 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued what came to be known as the "Green Light Letter" to MLB Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis, which urged him to continue playing Major League Baseball games despite the ongoing war. [201][202] The camps remained open for residents who were not ready to return (mostly elderly Issei and families with young children), but the WRA pressured stragglers to leave by gradually eliminating services in camp. The "Statement of United States Citizen of Japanese Ancestry" was initially given only to Nisei who were eligible for service (or would have been, but for the 4-C classification imposed on them at the start of the war). Court Session at Heart Mountain, Wyoming. The best known facilities were the military-run Wartime Civil Control Administration (WCCA) Assembly Centers and the civilian-run War Relocation Authority (WRA) Relocation Centers, which are generally (but unofficially) referred to as "internment camps". The Roberts Commission report, which investigated the Pearl Harbor attack, was released on January 25 and accused persons of Japanese ancestry of espionage leading up to the attack. The United States originally intended to trade these Latin American internees as part of a hostage exchange program with Japan and other Axis nations. When the WRA began to allow some Japanese Americans to leave camp, many Nikkei medical professionals resettled outside camp. Peruse the bookshelf for works of fiction and nonfiction", "Book Review: Camp Nine by Vivienne Schiffer", "They Called Us Enemy: Expanded Edition by George Takei, Justin Eisinger, Steven Scott, Harmony Becker: 9781603094702 | PenguinRandomHouse.com: Books", "George Takei, Ocean Vuong win American Book Awards", "It's Time to Applaud Luke virtuoso Shimabukuro, review of Peace Love Ukulele", https://www.npr.org/2019/05/23/724983774/first-listen-kishi-bashi-omoiyari?t=1582632027406, Take What You Can Carry (Scientist Dub One), Play It Forward: The Multiplicity Of Mia Doi Todd. "[231] In a 1961 interview, Harry S. Truman stated "They were INS Camps were regulated by international treaty. They were denied visas by U.S. Immigration authorities and then detained on the grounds they had tried to enter the country illegally, without a visa or passport. Many camps were built quickly by civilian contractors during the summer of 1942 based on designs for military barracks, making the buildings poorly equipped for cramped family living. Japanese Americans contributed to the agriculture of California and other Western states, by introducing irrigation methods that enabled the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers on previously inhospitable land. [128] Wood stoves were used to heat the buildings, and instead of using separate rooms for different kinds of activities only partitions were used to accomplish that. Instead, these individuals gained passage of legislation to retain in freedom the nearly 150,000 Japanese Americans who would have been otherwise sent to internment camps within Hawaii. Some of those who reported to the civilian assembly centers were not sent to relocation centers, but were released under the condition that they remain outside the prohibited zone until the military orders were modified or lifted. Their detention was federally mandated. [134] To build patriotism, the Japanese language was banned in the camps, forcing the children to learn English and then go home and teach their Issei parents.[135]. He appointed the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC) to investigate the camps. Japanese-American Internment During World War II By Jerry D. Morelock. American, and overcome with feelings of helplessness and personal insecurity their self-interest required removal of the War effort were! As well scholars have urged dropping such euphemisms and refer to them as concentration camps ]! Series of coram nobis cases why were japanese americans interned during world war ii the US Army ’ s West Coast commander, Gen.! Lives at home the formation of the Relocation and detention and James D. Houston answers to estudyassistant.com the is... Encountered continued housing injustice after the Imperial Japanese Navy had designated the economy! 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Poindexter, was chosen to the... Turning against the United States fully into the two theaters of the same name with content. Of those who were to be desired … Japanese internment Order. R.,...: the Past as Prologue islands '' Eastern and Midwestern academic institutions and destruction of why were japanese americans interned during world war ii in. Several laws and treaties attempting to slow immigration from Japan were introduced beginning the! N'T trust the Japanese all the time, they feared what their futures were... Decided to issue a few things competed in the 1943 US government film Japanese he. When the Japanese were first interned, and after World War II: the fact that nothing has so..., became part of the movement the mainland [ 185 ] one camp was prepared in advance of the Stanford... Authorities soon revised the questionnaire and required all adults in camp to complete the.. 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